© 2019 Steve Campsall

The word argument brings to mind an animated disagreement between two people, but for your English homework or exams, a written argument is very different. Writing to argue requires that you...

• put forward a well-considered point of view, stated briefly;

• provide support for this view;

• create a sense of balance by referring to one or more other viewpoints;

• tactfully counter these.

Your aim in this kind of writing is not necessarily to 'win' the argument; instead, it is to put forward evidence that is logical and well-considered and which acts to support your point of view and to counter the main alternative views.

The evidence you provide must be both convincing and presented convincingly.

• The evidence needs to be convincing but, in an exam situation at least, it does not have to be factual, i.e. you can 'make it up'; you are allowed to make up such things as expert opinions and statistical evidence to support your argument.

• Importantly, whatever evidence you do use, it must be well considered and reasonable.

Remember - whilst you might not agree with an opposing view, that doesn't make it in any way foolish to hold. You will need to take great care indeed to avoid suggesting that those who hold different views are in any way foolish for doing so.

• This is such an easy pitfall that catches out very many students.

• In large part, it is the degree of politeness and tact that you display when opposing other viewpoints that will win or lose your argument - and gain you the most marks!

ARGUMENT OR PERSUASION - what is the difference?
'Writing to argue' and 'writing to persuade' both occur on school courses. They are both very similar in as much as they share the same purpose, that of seeking to influence. There are differences that will affect the style of your writing if you are to gain the highest marks.

An argument concerns an issue about which people, quite reasonably, hold different views. This suggests that other views are not necessarily wrong - just different. During the process of presenting your argument, therefore, it is reasonable that you should show that you recognise that opposing views exist, not only to hint at what a fair-minded person you are, but to give you the opportunity to counter these views tactfully in order to show why you feel that your own view is the more worthy one to hold.

Persuasion has a more single-minded goal. It is based on a personal conviction that a particular way of thinking is the only sensible way to think.

A little history will help...

ARGUMENT AND THE ANCIENT ART OF 'RHETORIC'
The art of argument and persuasion is as old as the hills... or rather, as old as the ancient Greek hills. The Greeks were famous for their teaching and learning as well as their arguing and persuasion. They called the art of using language persuasively rhetoric and, still today, any use of language that makes it seem more powerful is called rhetorical language. Two of the world's most famous 'rhetoricians' were Aristotle (the student of the famous teacher and philosopher Plato) and another Roman teacher called Cicero.

Writing an effective argument...

An argument should set out to answer the question 'Why?' for your viewpoint as well as show awareness and understanding of your opponent's views.

The secrets of success?

1. Show you understand the genre conventions of the form - that is, the format - in which you are asked to write (e.g. an article, a letter, a speech, etc.).

2. Find common ground - an endpoint upon which all would agree.

3. Show consideration of but counter with politeness and tact your opponent's views.

4. Use effective argumentative techniques - that is, use rhetorical devices.

5. Ensure your views unfold logically and persuasively - that is, create a logical structure for your argument.

Showing understanding of opposing views

• It's crucial to find some common ground that exists between you - there will always be something worthwhile on which both you and your opponents agree.
• Think hard about the views your opponents hold and why they hold such views - and always recognise and show that they see that this is a fair view to hold (but not the best view... which is your own).
• Be tactful - never show disrespect for another's point of view.
• Sound sincere - give your writing an authentic feel.
• Sound interested, knowledgeable, trustworthy and convincing.
• Logic and reason win arguments - but be passionate about your views
• Avoid sounding superior, condescending or impolite. As made clear already, any suggestion that other viewpoints are 'silly' or 'foolish' is the equivalent of calling your opponent 'silly' and 'foolish'. The result? Lost argument. Lost marks.
  

Showing understanding of form and conventions

• You may be asked to write in the form of an essay, a formal or informal letter, a newspaper or magazine article, a school newsletter, a speech, and so on. Make sure you know the genre conventions that apply to each of these.

Using effective argumentative techniques

• Remember that because the other view is reasonably held, you will only win through sensible reasoning, logic and evidence.
• The key to a successful argument is to plan well, making sure you release your various points in a progressively convincing order. Try to show that you have planned or, as the examiner's put it: 'consciously shaped your response'. This gains many extra marks.
• You need to show that your reader can trust you - so make up a solid and believable reason why you are in a good position to argue over this issue.
• An effective way of convincing someone that you are reasonable is to find the common ground that exists between you. This is an outcome that is common to you both - an end-point you both desire. Having acknowledged this, you then proceed by showing how your way to this goal is the best way.
• A solid way to seem reasonable is to acknowledge the main opposing view(s) - but to show subtly how your view is more reasonable.
• Using an interesting - but entirely reasonable and realistic - anecdote to illustrate your main point can be very compelling and powerful, e.g. 'Let me tell you about a friend of mine. S/he... '.
• Use rhetorical devices such as rhetorical questions, 'list of three', repetition, etc. to increase the persuasive power of your argument.

IN MORE DETAIL...

1. Plan
2. Write
3. Check

1. PLAN

• Planning: put simply, you will lose marks if your argument fails to have an effective structure. So a clear plan is essential to an effective written argument. The examiner's mark schedule states that your argument needs to show evidence of being consciously shaped.
• Decide on the most likely effective style - should you use standard English (probably...), be very formal (depends...), be chatty (probably not...) and so on.
• Brainstorm to create a list of points in favour of your idea. Choose five of the most convincing. Check that each point is truly separate and not a part of a larger, more general point if it is, use the larger point. Make sure each point would convince you if you were your opposition!
• Organise your five points into a progressive and persuasive order.
• Work out one or two of the main opposing points.
• Think how you could add authority to your writing: a piece of research, an expert opinion, a quotation from a respected source... (always sensible and made up for the exam!).
• Would an anecdote be a persuasive device to use?
• Remember to use reason but state it passionately if appropriate.
• Most especially remember that if you as much as even suggest that people are silly or foolish to hold an opposing view you have lost your argument! And worse... lost marks.

2. WRITE

OPENING PARAGRAPH

• Open strongly and in an original way to capture your reader's attention.
• Consider using an anecdote early in the argument.
• State your own point of view but don't be too strident in your tone.
• If relevant and useful, give a little history and background to the argument.
• Find some common ground between you and your reader to generate trust and goodwill in you as a person and as a thinker. 'Selling' yourself will help your reader decide to 'buy' your ideas.

CENTRAL or BODY PARAGRAPHS

• Open each paragraph with a topic sentence that introduces the points created from your brainstorm and planning.
• Write about four to five more sentences that do no more than explain the point made in the topic sentence.
• Aim to link each paragraph to the next by using a subtle 'transition' or 'hook' sentence at the end of the preceding paragraph.
• Acknowledge the main opposing view but sensitively refute it to show how your view is more reasonable.
• Use rhetorical devices.
  

• Help your argument flow by using 'discourse markers'. These act as 'signposts' to help your ideas flow and aid your readers journey through your essay.
  

• Add authenticity to your argument by creating a sincere tone, and by using an anecdote.
• Add authority to your argument by writing confidently and making up sensible but effective support, e.g. 'expert' opinion, statistics, and so on - make this up in the exam, but keep it reasonable.

CONCLUDING PARAGRAPH

• Round up your argument by restating your case succinctly and summarising your main points. End as you began - in a powerful, interesting and memorable way.

3. CHECK

Read each sentence immediately after you write it
Use a variety of sentence types and styles and remember that shorter sentences are often clearer and crisper sounding. An occasional ultra-short sentence can add real impact to writing.

Read each sentence before you proceed to the next to check it is fluent, accurate and complete. Does it follow on logically from the previous sentence?

Check every paragraph
A paragraph is a series of sentences (often at least five) that develop from a single topic sentence used to introduce the point of the paragraph.

Avoid creating overly short paragraphs as this suggests either a) you do not know what a paragraph is or b) that you have no explained the point of the paragraph in sufficient detail. Try to make sure that each paragraph flows naturally on from its predecessor by using the final sentence of each paragraph to subtly 'hook' into the topic of the next paragraph.

To correct a missed paragraph simply put this mark where you want in to be: // then, in your margin write: // = new paragraph. The examiner will not mark you down for this so long as you have not forgotten all of your paragraphs.

Examine each comma
A very common error and poor style is to use a comma instead of a full stop to end a sentence. This makes two or more stylish, short and crisp sentences into one long, drawn out and boring sentence! Always end each sentence with a full stop - or a semi-colon if you know how to use this punctuation mark.

Look at every apostrophe
Apostrophes are used for two reasons - but so many students fail to use them effectively. If two words are made into one in what is called a 'contraction', an apostrophe is inserted if any letters have been missed out. So 'should not' becomes 'shouldn't'

And when one thing belongs to another thing or person, this is shown by adding apostrophe+s to the owning noun. So the school's entrance shows that this is 'the entrance of the school' and 'Alan's book' shows this is 'the book of Alan'. Similarly, you go 'to the doctor's' and 'the chemist's' as well as to 'Sainsbury's' and 'McDonald's' because you mean 'to the doctor's surgery', 'the chemist's shop' and so on.

It's or Its?
Watch out for it's. With an apostrophe it only ever means it is or it has, as in 'it's cold' or 'it's got three toes missing'. If you mean belonging to it, as in its fur is shiny and smooth, no apostrophe is used.